谢郁芳 张先翠

摘要 综述糖尿病病人围术期高血糖对其术后转归的影响,并针对发生机制、临床预测因素、血糖控制目标等进行分析,发现围术期高血糖与器官损伤、术后并发症及死亡率存在着明显的联系,以期给临床医护在血糖管理方案的制定方面提供参考依据,利于病人围术期安全和转归。

关键词 糖尿病;围术期;血糖;术后转归;综述;护理

doi:10.12102/j.issn.2095-8668.2023.07.012

糖尿病(diabetes mellitus,DM)是指与胰岛素抵抗和/或胰岛素血症相关的血糖慢性升高[1],全球糖尿病的发病数和发病率均呈现明显增加[2],已经成为一个严重的公共卫生问题。糖尿病病人因长期存在内分泌代谢紊乱会出现一定程度的心[3]、脑[4]、肾[5]等重要器官损伤,且在面对手术、麻醉、禁食、禁饮等刺激时不可避免地引起血糖的剧烈变化,从而加重重要脏器损伤,提高感染、伤口愈合不良及住院时间延长的发生率,其死亡率更是达到非糖尿病病人的5倍[6]。基于此,本研究综述围术期高血糖发生的机制及其高血糖水平对围术期器官功能的影响,旨在加强医务人员对围术期血糖水平管理的认识,以采取及时有效的措施,保证病人安全,进而提高医疗护理质量。

1 围术期高血糖的发生机制

围术期高血糖的病理原因包括但不限于病人合并有糖尿病、其他代谢综合征和各种应激因素引起的胰岛素抵抗或分泌障碍等。在生理应激期间,交感神经刺激增加,随后反调节激素(儿茶酚胺、皮质醇、胰高血糖素和生长激素)水平升高,并通过糖异生(主要是肝脏)和糖原分解导致内源性葡萄糖产生的增加[7];而应激后,体内白细胞介素-1、白细胞介素-6、肿瘤坏死因子、一氧化氮等细胞因子亦会大量释放,直接引起胰岛素受体底物1及其下游信号分子的变化和表达一些蛋白,从而抑制胰岛素受体信号传导,出现了应激性高血糖[8]。Toll样受体4(TLR4)作为先天免疫系统的一类模式识别受体,其表达和胰岛素抵抗的加重密切相关,也被认为参与了糖尿病及并发症的发生发展[9]。

2 围术期高血糖的临床预测因素

围术期高血糖的两个影响因素是程度和持续时间。首先,术后循环胰岛素水平生理反应性短暂下降,最明显为术后第1天,也可能持续数天或数周;其次,是手术部位、手术方式、术中液体管理、禁食禁饮及麻醉。且在择期腹部手术的病人中,术后5 d内胰岛素敏感性平均下降50%,并且在术后9~21 d内恢复正常,而侵入性较小手术(如腹腔镜手术)胰岛素抵抗增加较少[10]。此外,术中液体的选择也可能在调节术后血糖水平和胰岛素抵抗方面发挥作用,早期认为围术期高血糖风险增加的因素也包括了使用激素和含糖营养液;随后又发现,与传统禁食相比,术前给予葡萄糖输注反而可以减轻术后胰岛素抵抗和应激性高血糖的发生[10],因此,需要更多研究结果循证这一问题的答案。当然,禁食时间过长、不合适的降糖治疗、术后身体不活动也有可能会引起病人血糖剧烈波动。麻醉方式及药物的选择可能导致胰岛素抵抗的发生[11],年龄和体质指数也是术中胰岛素抵抗不可忽视的重要因素[12]。

3 围术期血糖水平的控制目标

现糖尿病术前监测指标通常包括血糖、糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)与血糖变异度,但尚不清楚这些指标的监测与评估是否有助于改善病人的术后转归,而围术期血糖控制水平与术后死亡率之间的关系也缺乏统一的认识。各国协会对围术期血糖水平管理的建议亦各不相同,目前大多数认为严格的血糖控制除了可能会容易引起低血糖,其他益处不明显,提倡将血糖控制目标适当放宽。《围术期血糖管理专家共识》(2016版)提出了术前控制血糖标准:餐前血糖≤7.8 mmol/L,餐后血糖≤10.0 mmol/L;但也需要根据手术方式不同而进行调整:如整形科需要降低血糖目标值至6.0~8.0 mmol/L;而对脑血管疾病病人来说,更多考虑对低血糖的耐受能力,主张血糖目标值≤12.0 mmol/L。综合评估后,术前血糖目标上限≤10.0 mmol/L,随机或餐后2 h≤12.0 mmol/L。还要注意长期血糖增高的病人在术前不能下降过快,保证病人安全。HbA1c≥6.5%是糖尿病诊断标准[13],可以反映术前3个月的血糖控制情况,且也被证明对病人预后有一定的预测作用。对于糖尿病病人来说,HbA1c≤7%被认为血糖控制尚可;而建议HbA1c>8.5%的病人推迟手术,以预防手术意外的发生。

此外,应注意到葡萄糖变异性与不良预后的关系。现有可靠准确的短期血糖波动评估参数有:平均葡萄糖波动幅度(MAGE)、葡萄糖标准差(BGSD)、变异系数(CV)。早前基础试验证明了短期血糖波动造成了氧化应激、炎症和内皮功能紊乱,从而加速了动脉粥样硬化的发展,且不论急性或慢性血糖波动均可引起胰岛素抵抗,尤以急性血糖波动更严重[14],这与有学者研究发现MAGE是预测冠状动脉疾病严重程度的独立影响因素结果一致[15]。也有学者提出BGSD>2.7 mmol/L是2型糖尿病合并急性冠状动脉综合征病人发生心血管不良事件的独立预测因素。且近期发现糖尿病病人血糖变异度越高,住院时间越长,发生并发症风险越多,术后30 d死亡风险也越大[16]。因此,需要根据具体情况去选择术前血糖监测方式,并保证术前血糖水平的稳定。

4 高血糖对术后转归的影响

早期研究血糖控制对术后不良转归较少,直至20世纪90年代才有研究认为高血糖不仅直接影响免疫功能、病原体生长和血管通透性,而且长期刺激微血管系统,最后增加围术期死亡率。分析可能原因有:①手术和麻醉的刺激会升高病人血糖:小手术通常升高1.11 mmol/L;较大手术则为2.05~4.48 mmol/L。血糖每增加1 mmol/L就会将糖尿病病人病死率提高20%,非糖尿病病人病死率提高12%。②糖尿病病人本身可能存在的重要器官(如心、脑、肾等)损害,容易引起血糖波动增加死亡率。③高血糖使外周血白细胞趋化能力减弱,抗体减少,免疫功能下降,感染概率增高,增加了死亡率,糖尿病大鼠的伤口会持续发生炎症反应,而术前长期良好的血糖控制则会提升愈合率[17]。现将糖尿病对心、脑、肾等重要器官及其手术预后影响总结如下。

4.1 围术期高血糖对肾脏的影响

糖尿病是急性肾损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)发生的危险因素之一,特别是心脏手术相关性急性肾损伤(CSA-AKI)[18]。即使胰岛素治疗后,相关风险依然不能得到改善[19]。主要病理机制是急性高血糖可致肾脏出现明显的管状形态和功能损伤,并通过腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR) 通路抑制间质,从而加重线粒体损伤和肾管损伤[20];同时还可通过强化氧化应激、炎症和凋亡而加剧肾缺血再灌注损伤引起急性肾损伤的发生[21]。而术中血糖波动较大(不一定是高血糖)时,亦能增加CSA-AKI的风险[22],此研究结果与儿童病人心脏手术[23]、新生儿脑损伤手术[24]及肝移植手术[25]结果一致。早期很多研究认为糖尿病病人术前HbA1c水平与急性肾损伤预后无明显关联;非糖尿病病人的非心脏手术术前HbA1c和术中高血糖,与急性肾损伤预后关系越密切[26];但低血糖与急性肾损伤同样密切相关[27]。但应注意的是,严格控制血糖并不能降低CSA-AKI发生率[28]。改善全球肾脏病预后组织(KDIGO)为了预防中度至重度急性肾损伤的发生制定的标准来降低血糖[29],经对多个国家的临床调查研究发现,能很好地做到围术期血糖的控制只有41.1%[30]。因此,过高或者过低的血糖水平对急性肾损伤都会产生不利影响,而更加合理有效的围术期血糖控制策略尚待更多循证医学研究。

4.2 围术期高血糖对术后认知功能的影响

近年来,多项研究表明术后认知功能障碍(postoperative cognitive dysfunction,POCD)与围术期高血糖存在着一定的联系,严格的围术期血糖管理可以明显降低术后POCD发生概率[31-33]。高血糖可使病人海马和额叶皮质的小胶质细胞活化、星形胶质细胞丢失和神经元损伤;而高磷酸tau的形成亦可引起的神经退化会导致糖尿病相关的认知缺陷,且有研究发现tau高磷化程度与血浆葡萄糖水平和认知功能障碍程度呈正相关[34]。再者,胰岛素抵抗在心脏手术后病人POCD中也起着潜在的作用,与其发病率和炎症因素的增加有关[35]。无论是否诊断为糖尿病,术前HbA1c水平升高都是POCD的危险因素[36-37]。在心脏手术中,严格的围术期血糖控制可能有助于预防持续的POCD[31]。而术中持续的高血糖与术后谵妄(postoperative delirium,POD)有关,而与POCD无关,这一点对于非糖尿病病人尤为明显[38]。在肝移植及心脏手术中,血糖变异水平亦与POCD之间存在线性关系[39-40]。因此,长期的高血糖控制不佳和围术期持续的高血糖均会引起术后认知功能的下降。

4.3 围术期高血糖对心血管功能的影响

糖尿病或慢性高血糖病人的心血管疾病发生率是正常人的2倍,包括冠状动脉疾病(CAD)、心肌梗死(MI)、中风、心律失常、心力衰竭和心脏猝死[41]。非糖尿病病人心肌梗死和心脏手术期间,也会因为全身组织低灌注而出现高血糖[42]。因此,心脏手术本身的风险加上高血糖的影响,病人发生高乳酸血症和乳酸中毒的风险增高,也会加重组织缺血缺氧,这将会增加病人呼吸和循环支持的需求,也会延长病人住院时间[43]。循证医学研究已经证实术中高血糖是心脏手术后并发症(包括死亡)的独立危险因素[44],而作为心脏手术后常见的并发症的术后心房颤动,也被证明和持续高血糖和急性血糖波动密切相关[45]。与非糖尿病病人相比,糖尿病病人围术期高血糖、高HbA1c水平以及高血糖变异性与非心脏外科术后感染和其他并发症的发病率较高呈正相关,且高HbA1c水平可增加术后并发症和术后血糖控制的难度[16,46-47],这种情况也发生在术前36 h的高血糖状态及高血糖变异性病人身上[48]。其主要机制可能是围术期高血糖可降低术后基础杆菌计数、抑制T细胞活化和单细胞功能,使病人术前即处于较高的免疫活化状态而致术后感染的发生[49]。

围术期血糖控制不良(围术期血糖≥13.9 mmol/L)可以影响病人术后30 d死亡率/发病率,此类病人是正常血糖病人心脏术后死亡率的2倍[50-51]。因此,控制糖尿病病人围术期血糖是很有必要的。值得注意的是,非糖尿病病人也需要严格控制[52-53]。然而,临床实践中只有15% 的心脏手术病人实现了血糖控制,不同医院的实施效果也存在很大差异[54]。因此,改善围术期高血糖状态,有利于保障病人围术期安全,减少术后感染等并发症和医疗支出,也需要加强医护人员和病人对高血糖危害的认识。

4.4 围术期高血糖对其他器官手术的影响

在骨科四肢关节成形手术中,糖尿病是膝关节置换术后1~2年关节持续疼痛的危险因素[55],而持续皮下胰岛素输液可降低术后感染风险[56]。高HbA1c和围术期高血糖(≥11.1 mmol/L)可明显增加关节手术部位感染风险[57],而术前高血糖还进一步提高术后关节无菌松动的发生率[58],筛查HbA1c和围术期血糖是预测感染的有效方法[59],大样本的临床研究也认为合理的葡萄糖管理计划可以降低术后葡萄糖水平[60]。

糖尿病和移植后糖尿病(PTDM)已经被证实影响移植器官存活率和器官接受病人的生存率[61]。而围术期高血糖影响移植手术的成功率,主要是因为急性高血糖通过对TLR4信号通路的上向调节,可加重肺缺血-再灌注损伤(I/RI),以TLR4为目标来进行血糖管理似乎能够改善结局[62]。

肝切除过程中的高血糖还可能与肝细胞损伤的程度有关,这类病人肝脏术后更容易发生胰岛素抵抗,围术期对血糖的控制更为严格且必要,最好围术期血糖保持在10 mmol/L以下更为适宜[63-64]。高血糖状态可影响胃癌手术的进展与恶化[65-66],且在一项急诊外科手术研究中发现,HbA1c≥6.0%或术后随机血糖≥11.1 mmol/L出现重大并发症的风险比非糖尿病病人高4倍[67]。值得注意的是,1型糖尿病与2型糖尿病,在围术期治疗效果相差很大[68]。因此,根据糖尿病类型采用合适的血糖调控策略方能更好地调控围术期血糖,以减少术后并发症的发生。

4.5 围术期高血糖影响新型冠状病毒(COVID-19)感染病人手术预后

糖尿病是COVID-19感染住院病人常见的共病,糖尿病病人因轻度慢性炎症而发生细胞因子风暴,导致COVID-19病人产生不良后果[69]。调查发现COVID-19病例中,合并有糖尿病病人的死亡率更高[70-72]。而2型糖尿病病人术前高血糖与COVID-19病人术后入住重症监护室(ICU)率密切相关。不可忽视的是,发生应激性高血糖的非糖尿病病人预后更差[73]。COVID-19感染还是糖尿病病人糖尿病酮症酸中毒(DKA)的诱发因素,增加了其死亡率[74]。临床研究证实基础胰岛素注射方案安全有效地实现住院病人血糖控制,而良好的血糖控制有效降低了相关并发症的发生率[75]。因此,COVID-19病人在围术期更应重视血糖的调控,至于确切的血糖控制指标尚需更多的循证医学证据支持。

5 结语

在外科手术人群中,导致医院高血糖的因素很多,且伴或不伴糖尿病的高血糖可能未被识别。而现阶段循证医学表明,糖尿病病人围术期血糖水平波动较非糖尿病病人明显,高血糖状态会损害重要器官功能并导致各种术后并发症的发生。然而,因为疾病和病人情况的复杂性,糖尿病病人围术期血糖调控水平无统一的标准,尚需要更多的临床研究完善糖尿病病人围术期血糖评估、控制、管理以及护理。因此,在该人群中,管理高血糖的明智方法包括术前识别糖尿病和住院病人高血糖的风险,并在术前、术中和术后期间明智地个性化的控制血糖并避免低血糖,以优化围术期病人结局。

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(收稿日期:2022-03-07;修回日期:2023-03-13)

(本文编辑王雅洁)